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.\" ========================================================================
.\"
.IX Title "PERLDEBGUTS 1"
.TH PERLDEBGUTS 1 "2013-03-04" "perl v5.16.3" "Perl Programmers Reference Guide"
.\" For nroff, turn off justification.  Always turn off hyphenation; it makes
.\" way too many mistakes in technical documents.
.if n .ad l
.nh
.SH "NAME"
perldebguts \- Guts of Perl debugging
.SH "DESCRIPTION"
.IX Header "DESCRIPTION"
This is not perldebug, which tells you how to use
the debugger.  This manpage describes low-level details concerning
the debugger's internals, which range from difficult to impossible
to understand for anyone who isn't incredibly intimate with Perl's guts.
Caveat lector.
.SH "Debugger Internals"
.IX Header "Debugger Internals"
Perl has special debugging hooks at compile-time and run-time used
to create debugging environments.  These hooks are not to be confused
with the \fIperl \-Dxxx\fR command described in perlrun, which is
usable only if a special Perl is built per the instructions in the
\&\fI\s-1INSTALL\s0\fR podpage in the Perl source tree.
.PP
For example, whenever you call Perl's built-in \f(CW\*(C`caller\*(C'\fR function
from the package \f(CW\*(C`DB\*(C'\fR, the arguments that the corresponding stack
frame was called with are copied to the \f(CW@DB::args\fR array.  These
mechanisms are enabled by calling Perl with the \fB\-d\fR switch.
Specifically, the following additional features are enabled
(cf. \*(L"$^P\*(R" in perlvar):
.IP "\(bu" 4
Perl inserts the contents of \f(CW$ENV{PERL5DB}\fR (or \f(CW\*(C`BEGIN {require
\&\*(Aqperl5db.pl\*(Aq}\*(C'\fR if not present) before the first line of your program.
.IP "\(bu" 4
Each array \f(CW\*(C`@{"_<$filename"}\*(C'\fR holds the lines of \f(CW$filename\fR for a
file compiled by Perl.  The same is also true for \f(CW\*(C`eval\*(C'\fRed strings
that contain subroutines, or which are currently being executed.
The \f(CW$filename\fR for \f(CW\*(C`eval\*(C'\fRed strings looks like \f(CW\*(C`(eval 34)\*(C'\fR.
Code assertions in regexes look like \f(CW\*(C`(re_eval 19)\*(C'\fR.
.Sp
Values in this array are magical in numeric context: they compare
equal to zero only if the line is not breakable.
.IP "\(bu" 4
Each hash \f(CW\*(C`%{"_<$filename"}\*(C'\fR contains breakpoints and actions keyed
by line number.  Individual entries (as opposed to the whole hash)
are settable.  Perl only cares about Boolean true here, although
the values used by \fIperl5db.pl\fR have the form
\&\f(CW"$break_condition\e0$action"\fR.
.Sp
The same holds for evaluated strings that contain subroutines, or
which are currently being executed.  The \f(CW$filename\fR for \f(CW\*(C`eval\*(C'\fRed strings
looks like \f(CW\*(C`(eval 34)\*(C'\fR or \f(CW\*(C`(re_eval 19)\*(C'\fR.
.IP "\(bu" 4
Each scalar \f(CW\*(C`${"_<$filename"}\*(C'\fR contains \f(CW"_<$filename"\fR.  This is
also the case for evaluated strings that contain subroutines, or
which are currently being executed.  The \f(CW$filename\fR for \f(CW\*(C`eval\*(C'\fRed
strings looks like \f(CW\*(C`(eval 34)\*(C'\fR or \f(CW\*(C`(re_eval 19)\*(C'\fR.
.IP "\(bu" 4
After each \f(CW\*(C`require\*(C'\fRd file is compiled, but before it is executed,
\&\f(CW\*(C`DB::postponed(*{"_<$filename"})\*(C'\fR is called if the subroutine
\&\f(CW\*(C`DB::postponed\*(C'\fR exists.  Here, the \f(CW$filename\fR is the expanded name of
the \f(CW\*(C`require\*(C'\fRd file, as found in the values of \f(CW%INC\fR.
.IP "\(bu" 4
After each subroutine \f(CW\*(C`subname\*(C'\fR is compiled, the existence of
\&\f(CW$DB::postponed{subname}\fR is checked.  If this key exists,
\&\f(CW\*(C`DB::postponed(subname)\*(C'\fR is called if the \f(CW\*(C`DB::postponed\*(C'\fR subroutine
also exists.
.IP "\(bu" 4
A hash \f(CW%DB::sub\fR is maintained, whose keys are subroutine names
and whose values have the form \f(CW\*(C`filename:startline\-endline\*(C'\fR.
\&\f(CW\*(C`filename\*(C'\fR has the form \f(CW\*(C`(eval 34)\*(C'\fR for subroutines defined inside
\&\f(CW\*(C`eval\*(C'\fRs, or \f(CW\*(C`(re_eval 19)\*(C'\fR for those within regex code assertions.
.IP "\(bu" 4
When the execution of your program reaches a point that can hold a
breakpoint, the \f(CW\*(C`DB::DB()\*(C'\fR subroutine is called if any of the variables
\&\f(CW$DB::trace\fR, \f(CW$DB::single\fR, or \f(CW$DB::signal\fR is true.  These variables
are not \f(CW\*(C`local\*(C'\fRizable.  This feature is disabled when executing
inside \f(CW\*(C`DB::DB()\*(C'\fR, including functions called from it 
unless \f(CW\*(C`$^D & (1<<30)\*(C'\fR is true.
.IP "\(bu" 4
When execution of the program reaches a subroutine call, a call to
\&\f(CW&DB::sub\fR(\fIargs\fR) is made instead, with \f(CW$DB::sub\fR holding the
name of the called subroutine. (This doesn't happen if the subroutine
was compiled in the \f(CW\*(C`DB\*(C'\fR package.)
.PP
Note that if \f(CW&DB::sub\fR needs external data for it to work, no
subroutine call is possible without it. As an example, the standard
debugger's \f(CW&DB::sub\fR depends on the \f(CW$DB::deep\fR variable
(it defines how many levels of recursion deep into the debugger you can go
before a mandatory break).  If \f(CW$DB::deep\fR is not defined, subroutine
calls are not possible, even though \f(CW&DB::sub\fR exists.
.SS "Writing Your Own Debugger"
.IX Subsection "Writing Your Own Debugger"
\fIEnvironment Variables\fR
.IX Subsection "Environment Variables"
.PP
The \f(CW\*(C`PERL5DB\*(C'\fR environment variable can be used to define a debugger.
For example, the minimal \*(L"working\*(R" debugger (it actually doesn't do anything)
consists of one line:
.PP
.Vb 1
\&  sub DB::DB {}
.Ve
.PP
It can easily be defined like this:
.PP
.Vb 1
\&  $ PERL5DB="sub DB::DB {}" perl \-d your\-script
.Ve
.PP
Another brief debugger, slightly more useful, can be created
with only the line:
.PP
.Vb 1
\&  sub DB::DB {print ++$i; scalar <STDIN>}
.Ve
.PP
This debugger prints a number which increments for each statement
encountered and waits for you to hit a newline before continuing
to the next statement.
.PP
The following debugger is actually useful:
.PP
.Vb 5
\&  {
\&    package DB;
\&    sub DB  {}
\&    sub sub {print ++$i, " $sub\en"; &$sub}
\&  }
.Ve
.PP
It prints the sequence number of each subroutine call and the name of the
called subroutine.  Note that \f(CW&DB::sub\fR is being compiled into the
package \f(CW\*(C`DB\*(C'\fR through the use of the \f(CW\*(C`package\*(C'\fR directive.
.PP
When it starts, the debugger reads your rc file (\fI./.perldb\fR or
\&\fI~/.perldb\fR under Unix), which can set important options.
(A subroutine (\f(CW&afterinit\fR) can be defined here as well; it is executed
after the debugger completes its own initialization.)
.PP
After the rc file is read, the debugger reads the \s-1PERLDB_OPTS\s0
environment variable and uses it to set debugger options. The
contents of this variable are treated as if they were the argument
of an \f(CW\*(C`o ...\*(C'\fR debugger command (q.v. in \*(L"Configurable Options\*(R" in perldebug).
.PP
\fIDebugger Internal Variables\fR
.IX Subsection "Debugger Internal Variables"
.PP
In addition to the file and subroutine-related variables mentioned above,
the debugger also maintains various magical internal variables.
.IP "\(bu" 4
\&\f(CW@DB::dbline\fR is an alias for \f(CW\*(C`@{"::_<current_file"}\*(C'\fR, which
holds the lines of the currently-selected file (compiled by Perl), either
explicitly chosen with the debugger's \f(CW\*(C`f\*(C'\fR command, or implicitly by flow
of execution.
.Sp
Values in this array are magical in numeric context: they compare
equal to zero only if the line is not breakable.
.IP "\(bu" 4
\&\f(CW%DB::dbline\fR is an alias for \f(CW\*(C`%{"::_<current_file"}\*(C'\fR, which
contains breakpoints and actions keyed by line number in
the currently-selected file, either explicitly chosen with the
debugger's \f(CW\*(C`f\*(C'\fR command, or implicitly by flow of execution.
.Sp
As previously noted, individual entries (as opposed to the whole hash)
are settable.  Perl only cares about Boolean true here, although
the values used by \fIperl5db.pl\fR have the form
\&\f(CW"$break_condition\e0$action"\fR.
.PP
\fIDebugger Customization Functions\fR
.IX Subsection "Debugger Customization Functions"
.PP
Some functions are provided to simplify customization.
.IP "\(bu" 4
See \*(L"Configurable Options\*(R" in perldebug for a description of options parsed by
\&\f(CW\*(C`DB::parse_options(string)\*(C'\fR.
.IP "\(bu" 4
\&\f(CW\*(C`DB::dump_trace(skip[,count])\*(C'\fR skips the specified number of frames
and returns a list containing information about the calling frames (all
of them, if \f(CW\*(C`count\*(C'\fR is missing).  Each entry is reference to a hash
with keys \f(CW\*(C`context\*(C'\fR (either \f(CW\*(C`.\*(C'\fR, \f(CW\*(C`$\*(C'\fR, or \f(CW\*(C`@\*(C'\fR), \f(CW\*(C`sub\*(C'\fR (subroutine
name, or info about \f(CW\*(C`eval\*(C'\fR), \f(CW\*(C`args\*(C'\fR (\f(CW\*(C`undef\*(C'\fR or a reference to
an array), \f(CW\*(C`file\*(C'\fR, and \f(CW\*(C`line\*(C'\fR.
.IP "\(bu" 4
\&\f(CW\*(C`DB::print_trace(FH, skip[, count[, short]])\*(C'\fR prints
formatted info about caller frames.  The last two functions may be
convenient as arguments to \f(CW\*(C`<\*(C'\fR, \f(CW\*(C`<<\*(C'\fR commands.
.PP
Note that any variables and functions that are not documented in
this manpages (or in perldebug) are considered for internal   
use only, and as such are subject to change without notice.
.SH "Frame Listing Output Examples"
.IX Header "Frame Listing Output Examples"
The \f(CW\*(C`frame\*(C'\fR option can be used to control the output of frame 
information.  For example, contrast this expression trace:
.PP
.Vb 2
\& $ perl \-de 42
\& Stack dump during die enabled outside of evals.
\&
\& Loading DB routines from perl5db.pl patch level 0.94
\& Emacs support available.
\&
\& Enter h or \*(Aqh h\*(Aq for help.
\&
\& main::(\-e:1):   0
\&   DB<1> sub foo { 14 }
\&
\&   DB<2> sub bar { 3 }
\&
\&   DB<3> t print foo() * bar()
\& main::((eval 172):3):   print foo() + bar();
\& main::foo((eval 168):2):
\& main::bar((eval 170):2):
\& 42
.Ve
.PP
with this one, once the \f(CW\*(C`o\*(C'\fRption \f(CW\*(C`frame=2\*(C'\fR has been set:
.PP
.Vb 11
\&   DB<4> o f=2
\&                frame = \*(Aq2\*(Aq
\&   DB<5> t print foo() * bar()
\& 3:      foo() * bar()
\& entering main::foo
\&  2:     sub foo { 14 };
\& exited main::foo
\& entering main::bar
\&  2:     sub bar { 3 };
\& exited main::bar
\& 42
.Ve
.PP
By way of demonstration, we present below a laborious listing
resulting from setting your \f(CW\*(C`PERLDB_OPTS\*(C'\fR environment variable to
the value \f(CW\*(C`f=n N\*(C'\fR, and running \fIperl \-d \-V\fR from the command line.
Examples using various values of \f(CW\*(C`n\*(C'\fR are shown to give you a feel
for the difference between settings.  Long though it may be, this
is not a complete listing, but only excerpts.
.IP "1." 4
.Vb 10
\&  entering main::BEGIN
\&   entering Config::BEGIN
\&    Package lib/Exporter.pm.
\&    Package lib/Carp.pm.
\&   Package lib/Config.pm.
\&   entering Config::TIEHASH
\&   entering Exporter::import
\&    entering Exporter::export
\&  entering Config::myconfig
\&   entering Config::FETCH
\&   entering Config::FETCH
\&   entering Config::FETCH
\&   entering Config::FETCH
.Ve
.IP "2." 4
.Vb 10
\&  entering main::BEGIN
\&   entering Config::BEGIN
\&    Package lib/Exporter.pm.
\&    Package lib/Carp.pm.
\&   exited Config::BEGIN
\&   Package lib/Config.pm.
\&   entering Config::TIEHASH
\&   exited Config::TIEHASH
\&   entering Exporter::import
\&    entering Exporter::export
\&    exited Exporter::export
\&   exited Exporter::import
\&  exited main::BEGIN
\&  entering Config::myconfig
\&   entering Config::FETCH
\&   exited Config::FETCH
\&   entering Config::FETCH
\&   exited Config::FETCH
\&   entering Config::FETCH
.Ve
.IP "3." 4
.Vb 10
\&  in  $=main::BEGIN() from /dev/null:0
\&   in  $=Config::BEGIN() from lib/Config.pm:2
\&    Package lib/Exporter.pm.
\&    Package lib/Carp.pm.
\&   Package lib/Config.pm.
\&   in  $=Config::TIEHASH(\*(AqConfig\*(Aq) from lib/Config.pm:644
\&   in  $=Exporter::import(\*(AqConfig\*(Aq, \*(Aqmyconfig\*(Aq, \*(Aqconfig_vars\*(Aq) from /dev/null:0
\&    in  $=Exporter::export(\*(AqConfig\*(Aq, \*(Aqmain\*(Aq, \*(Aqmyconfig\*(Aq, \*(Aqconfig_vars\*(Aq) from li
\&  in  @=Config::myconfig() from /dev/null:0
\&   in  $=Config::FETCH(ref(Config), \*(Aqpackage\*(Aq) from lib/Config.pm:574
\&   in  $=Config::FETCH(ref(Config), \*(Aqbaserev\*(Aq) from lib/Config.pm:574
\&   in  $=Config::FETCH(ref(Config), \*(AqPERL_VERSION\*(Aq) from lib/Config.pm:574
\&   in  $=Config::FETCH(ref(Config), \*(AqPERL_SUBVERSION\*(Aq) from lib/Config.pm:574
\&   in  $=Config::FETCH(ref(Config), \*(Aqosname\*(Aq) from lib/Config.pm:574
\&   in  $=Config::FETCH(ref(Config), \*(Aqosvers\*(Aq) from lib/Config.pm:574
.Ve
.IP "4." 4
.Vb 10
\&  in  $=main::BEGIN() from /dev/null:0
\&   in  $=Config::BEGIN() from lib/Config.pm:2
\&    Package lib/Exporter.pm.
\&    Package lib/Carp.pm.
\&   out $=Config::BEGIN() from lib/Config.pm:0
\&   Package lib/Config.pm.
\&   in  $=Config::TIEHASH(\*(AqConfig\*(Aq) from lib/Config.pm:644
\&   out $=Config::TIEHASH(\*(AqConfig\*(Aq) from lib/Config.pm:644
\&   in  $=Exporter::import(\*(AqConfig\*(Aq, \*(Aqmyconfig\*(Aq, \*(Aqconfig_vars\*(Aq) from /dev/null:0
\&    in  $=Exporter::export(\*(AqConfig\*(Aq, \*(Aqmain\*(Aq, \*(Aqmyconfig\*(Aq, \*(Aqconfig_vars\*(Aq) from lib/
\&    out $=Exporter::export(\*(AqConfig\*(Aq, \*(Aqmain\*(Aq, \*(Aqmyconfig\*(Aq, \*(Aqconfig_vars\*(Aq) from lib/
\&   out $=Exporter::import(\*(AqConfig\*(Aq, \*(Aqmyconfig\*(Aq, \*(Aqconfig_vars\*(Aq) from /dev/null:0
\&  out $=main::BEGIN() from /dev/null:0
\&  in  @=Config::myconfig() from /dev/null:0
\&   in  $=Config::FETCH(ref(Config), \*(Aqpackage\*(Aq) from lib/Config.pm:574
\&   out $=Config::FETCH(ref(Config), \*(Aqpackage\*(Aq) from lib/Config.pm:574
\&   in  $=Config::FETCH(ref(Config), \*(Aqbaserev\*(Aq) from lib/Config.pm:574
\&   out $=Config::FETCH(ref(Config), \*(Aqbaserev\*(Aq) from lib/Config.pm:574
\&   in  $=Config::FETCH(ref(Config), \*(AqPERL_VERSION\*(Aq) from lib/Config.pm:574
\&   out $=Config::FETCH(ref(Config), \*(AqPERL_VERSION\*(Aq) from lib/Config.pm:574
\&   in  $=Config::FETCH(ref(Config), \*(AqPERL_SUBVERSION\*(Aq) from lib/Config.pm:574
.Ve
.IP "5." 4
.Vb 10
\&  in  $=main::BEGIN() from /dev/null:0
\&   in  $=Config::BEGIN() from lib/Config.pm:2
\&    Package lib/Exporter.pm.
\&    Package lib/Carp.pm.
\&   out $=Config::BEGIN() from lib/Config.pm:0
\&   Package lib/Config.pm.
\&   in  $=Config::TIEHASH(\*(AqConfig\*(Aq) from lib/Config.pm:644
\&   out $=Config::TIEHASH(\*(AqConfig\*(Aq) from lib/Config.pm:644
\&   in  $=Exporter::import(\*(AqConfig\*(Aq, \*(Aqmyconfig\*(Aq, \*(Aqconfig_vars\*(Aq) from /dev/null:0
\&    in  $=Exporter::export(\*(AqConfig\*(Aq, \*(Aqmain\*(Aq, \*(Aqmyconfig\*(Aq, \*(Aqconfig_vars\*(Aq) from lib/E
\&    out $=Exporter::export(\*(AqConfig\*(Aq, \*(Aqmain\*(Aq, \*(Aqmyconfig\*(Aq, \*(Aqconfig_vars\*(Aq) from lib/E
\&   out $=Exporter::import(\*(AqConfig\*(Aq, \*(Aqmyconfig\*(Aq, \*(Aqconfig_vars\*(Aq) from /dev/null:0
\&  out $=main::BEGIN() from /dev/null:0
\&  in  @=Config::myconfig() from /dev/null:0
\&   in  $=Config::FETCH(\*(AqConfig=HASH(0x1aa444)\*(Aq, \*(Aqpackage\*(Aq) from lib/Config.pm:574
\&   out $=Config::FETCH(\*(AqConfig=HASH(0x1aa444)\*(Aq, \*(Aqpackage\*(Aq) from lib/Config.pm:574
\&   in  $=Config::FETCH(\*(AqConfig=HASH(0x1aa444)\*(Aq, \*(Aqbaserev\*(Aq) from lib/Config.pm:574
\&   out $=Config::FETCH(\*(AqConfig=HASH(0x1aa444)\*(Aq, \*(Aqbaserev\*(Aq) from lib/Config.pm:574
.Ve
.IP "6." 4
.Vb 10
\&  in  $=CODE(0x15eca4)() from /dev/null:0
\&   in  $=CODE(0x182528)() from lib/Config.pm:2
\&    Package lib/Exporter.pm.
\&   out $=CODE(0x182528)() from lib/Config.pm:0
\&   scalar context return from CODE(0x182528): undef
\&   Package lib/Config.pm.
\&   in  $=Config::TIEHASH(\*(AqConfig\*(Aq) from lib/Config.pm:628
\&   out $=Config::TIEHASH(\*(AqConfig\*(Aq) from lib/Config.pm:628
\&   scalar context return from Config::TIEHASH:   empty hash
\&   in  $=Exporter::import(\*(AqConfig\*(Aq, \*(Aqmyconfig\*(Aq, \*(Aqconfig_vars\*(Aq) from /dev/null:0
\&    in  $=Exporter::export(\*(AqConfig\*(Aq, \*(Aqmain\*(Aq, \*(Aqmyconfig\*(Aq, \*(Aqconfig_vars\*(Aq) from lib/Exporter.pm:171
\&    out $=Exporter::export(\*(AqConfig\*(Aq, \*(Aqmain\*(Aq, \*(Aqmyconfig\*(Aq, \*(Aqconfig_vars\*(Aq) from lib/Exporter.pm:171
\&    scalar context return from Exporter::export: \*(Aq\*(Aq
\&   out $=Exporter::import(\*(AqConfig\*(Aq, \*(Aqmyconfig\*(Aq, \*(Aqconfig_vars\*(Aq) from /dev/null:0
\&   scalar context return from Exporter::import: \*(Aq\*(Aq
.Ve
.PP
In all cases shown above, the line indentation shows the call tree.
If bit 2 of \f(CW\*(C`frame\*(C'\fR is set, a line is printed on exit from a
subroutine as well.  If bit 4 is set, the arguments are printed
along with the caller info.  If bit 8 is set, the arguments are
printed even if they are tied or references.  If bit 16 is set, the
return value is printed, too.
.PP
When a package is compiled, a line like this
.PP
.Vb 1
\&    Package lib/Carp.pm.
.Ve
.PP
is printed with proper indentation.
.SH "Debugging Regular Expressions"
.IX Header "Debugging Regular Expressions"
There are two ways to enable debugging output for regular expressions.
.PP
If your perl is compiled with \f(CW\*(C`\-DDEBUGGING\*(C'\fR, you may use the
\&\fB\-Dr\fR flag on the command line.
.PP
Otherwise, one can \f(CW\*(C`use re \*(Aqdebug\*(Aq\*(C'\fR, which has effects at
compile time and run time.  Since Perl 5.9.5, this pragma is lexically
scoped.
.SS "Compile-time Output"
.IX Subsection "Compile-time Output"
The debugging output at compile time looks like this:
.PP
.Vb 10
\&  Compiling REx \*(Aq[bc]d(ef*g)+h[ij]k$\*(Aq
\&  size 45 Got 364 bytes for offset annotations.
\&  first at 1
\&  rarest char g at 0
\&  rarest char d at 0
\&     1: ANYOF[bc](12)
\&    12: EXACT <d>(14)
\&    14: CURLYX[0] {1,32767}(28)
\&    16:   OPEN1(18)
\&    18:     EXACT <e>(20)
\&    20:     STAR(23)
\&    21:       EXACT <f>(0)
\&    23:     EXACT <g>(25)
\&    25:   CLOSE1(27)
\&    27:   WHILEM[1/1](0)
\&    28: NOTHING(29)
\&    29: EXACT <h>(31)
\&    31: ANYOF[ij](42)
\&    42: EXACT <k>(44)
\&    44: EOL(45)
\&    45: END(0)
\&  anchored \*(Aqde\*(Aq at 1 floating \*(Aqgh\*(Aq at 3..2147483647 (checking floating) 
\&        stclass \*(AqANYOF[bc]\*(Aq minlen 7 
\&  Offsets: [45]
\&        1[4] 0[0] 0[0] 0[0] 0[0] 0[0] 0[0] 0[0] 0[0] 0[0] 0[0] 5[1]
\&        0[0] 12[1] 0[0] 6[1] 0[0] 7[1] 0[0] 9[1] 8[1] 0[0] 10[1] 0[0]
\&        11[1] 0[0] 12[0] 12[0] 13[1] 0[0] 14[4] 0[0] 0[0] 0[0] 0[0]
\&        0[0] 0[0] 0[0] 0[0] 0[0] 0[0] 18[1] 0[0] 19[1] 20[0]  
\&  Omitting $\` $& $\*(Aq support.
.Ve
.PP
The first line shows the pre-compiled form of the regex.  The second
shows the size of the compiled form (in arbitrary units, usually
4\-byte words) and the total number of bytes allocated for the
offset/length table, usually 4+\f(CW\*(C`size\*(C'\fR*8.  The next line shows the
label \fIid\fR of the first node that does a match.
.PP
The
.PP
.Vb 2
\&  anchored \*(Aqde\*(Aq at 1 floating \*(Aqgh\*(Aq at 3..2147483647 (checking floating) 
\&        stclass \*(AqANYOF[bc]\*(Aq minlen 7
.Ve
.PP
line (split into two lines above) contains optimizer
information.  In the example shown, the optimizer found that the match 
should contain a substring \f(CW\*(C`de\*(C'\fR at offset 1, plus substring \f(CW\*(C`gh\*(C'\fR
at some offset between 3 and infinity.  Moreover, when checking for
these substrings (to abandon impossible matches quickly), Perl will check
for the substring \f(CW\*(C`gh\*(C'\fR before checking for the substring \f(CW\*(C`de\*(C'\fR.  The
optimizer may also use the knowledge that the match starts (at the
\&\f(CW\*(C`first\*(C'\fR \fIid\fR) with a character class, and no string 
shorter than 7 characters can possibly match.
.PP
The fields of interest which may appear in this line are
.ie n .IP """anchored"" \fI\s-1STRING\s0\fR ""at"" \fI\s-1POS\s0\fR" 4
.el .IP "\f(CWanchored\fR \fI\s-1STRING\s0\fR \f(CWat\fR \fI\s-1POS\s0\fR" 4
.IX Item "anchored STRING at POS"
.PD 0
.ie n .IP """floating"" \fI\s-1STRING\s0\fR ""at"" \fI\s-1POS1\s0..POS2\fR" 4
.el .IP "\f(CWfloating\fR \fI\s-1STRING\s0\fR \f(CWat\fR \fI\s-1POS1\s0..POS2\fR" 4
.IX Item "floating STRING at POS1..POS2"
.PD
See above.
.ie n .IP """matching floating/anchored""" 4
.el .IP "\f(CWmatching floating/anchored\fR" 4
.IX Item "matching floating/anchored"
Which substring to check first.
.ie n .IP """minlen""" 4
.el .IP "\f(CWminlen\fR" 4
.IX Item "minlen"
The minimal length of the match.
.ie n .IP """stclass"" \fI\s-1TYPE\s0\fR" 4
.el .IP "\f(CWstclass\fR \fI\s-1TYPE\s0\fR" 4
.IX Item "stclass TYPE"
Type of first matching node.
.ie n .IP """noscan""" 4
.el .IP "\f(CWnoscan\fR" 4
.IX Item "noscan"
Don't scan for the found substrings.
.ie n .IP """isall""" 4
.el .IP "\f(CWisall\fR" 4
.IX Item "isall"
Means that the optimizer information is all that the regular
expression contains, and thus one does not need to enter the regex engine at
all.
.ie n .IP """GPOS""" 4
.el .IP "\f(CWGPOS\fR" 4
.IX Item "GPOS"
Set if the pattern contains \f(CW\*(C`\eG\*(C'\fR.
.ie n .IP """plus""" 4
.el .IP "\f(CWplus\fR" 4
.IX Item "plus"
Set if the pattern starts with a repeated char (as in \f(CW\*(C`x+y\*(C'\fR).
.ie n .IP """implicit""" 4
.el .IP "\f(CWimplicit\fR" 4
.IX Item "implicit"
Set if the pattern starts with \f(CW\*(C`.*\*(C'\fR.
.ie n .IP """with eval""" 4
.el .IP "\f(CWwith eval\fR" 4
.IX Item "with eval"
Set if the pattern contain eval-groups, such as \f(CW\*(C`(?{ code })\*(C'\fR and
\&\f(CW\*(C`(??{ code })\*(C'\fR.
.ie n .IP """anchored(TYPE)""" 4
.el .IP "\f(CWanchored(TYPE)\fR" 4
.IX Item "anchored(TYPE)"
If the pattern may match only at a handful of places, with \f(CW\*(C`TYPE\*(C'\fR
being \f(CW\*(C`BOL\*(C'\fR, \f(CW\*(C`MBOL\*(C'\fR, or \f(CW\*(C`GPOS\*(C'\fR.  See the table below.
.PP
If a substring is known to match at end-of-line only, it may be
followed by \f(CW\*(C`$\*(C'\fR, as in \f(CW\*(C`floating \*(Aqk\*(Aq$\*(C'\fR.
.PP
The optimizer-specific information is used to avoid entering (a slow) regex
engine on strings that will not definitely match.  If the \f(CW\*(C`isall\*(C'\fR flag
is set, a call to the regex engine may be avoided even when the optimizer
found an appropriate place for the match.
.PP
Above the optimizer section is the list of \fInodes\fR of the compiled
form of the regex.  Each line has format
.PP
\&\f(CW\*(C`   \*(C'\fR\fIid\fR: \fI\s-1TYPE\s0\fR \fIOPTIONAL-INFO\fR (\fInext-id\fR)
.SS "Types of Nodes"
.IX Subsection "Types of Nodes"
Here are the possible types, with short descriptions:
.PP
.Vb 1
\& # TYPE arg\-description [num\-args] [longjump\-len] DESCRIPTION
\&
\& # Exit points
\& END   no        End of program.
\& SUCCEED   no        Return from a subroutine, basically.
\&
\& # Anchors:
\&
\& BOL        no      Match "" at beginning of line.
\& MBOL       no      Same, assuming multiline.
\& SBOL       no      Same, assuming singleline.
\& EOS        no      Match "" at end of string.
\& EOL        no      Match "" at end of line.
\& MEOL       no      Same, assuming multiline.
\& SEOL       no      Same, assuming singleline.
\& BOUND      no      Match "" at any word boundary using native charset
\&                    semantics for non\-utf8
\& BOUNDL     no      Match "" at any locale word boundary
\& BOUNDU     no      Match "" at any word boundary using Unicode semantics
\& BOUNDA     no      Match "" at any word boundary using ASCII semantics
\& NBOUND     no      Match "" at any word non\-boundary using native charset
\&                    semantics for non\-utf8
\& NBOUNDL    no      Match "" at any locale word non\-boundary
\& NBOUNDU    no      Match "" at any word non\-boundary using Unicode semantics
\& NBOUNDA    no      Match "" at any word non\-boundary using ASCII semantics
\& GPOS       no      Matches where last m//g left off.
\&
\& # [Special] alternatives:
\&
\& REG_ANY    no      Match any one character (except newline).
\& SANY       no      Match any one character.
\& CANY       no      Match any one byte.
\& ANYOF      sv      Match character in (or not in) this class, single char
\&                    match only
\& ANYOFV     sv      Match character in (or not in) this class, can
\&                    match\-multiple chars
\& ALNUM      no      Match any alphanumeric character using native charset
\&                    semantics for non\-utf8
\& ALNUML     no      Match any alphanumeric char in locale
\& ALNUMU     no      Match any alphanumeric char using Unicode semantics
\& ALNUMA     no      Match [A\-Za\-z_0\-9]
\& NALNUM     no      Match any non\-alphanumeric character using native charset
\&                    semantics for non\-utf8
\& NALNUML    no      Match any non\-alphanumeric char in locale
\& NALNUMU    no      Match any non\-alphanumeric char using Unicode semantics
\& NALNUMA    no      Match [^A\-Za\-z_0\-9]
\& SPACE      no      Match any whitespace character using native charset
\&                    semantics for non\-utf8
\& SPACEL     no      Match any whitespace char in locale
\& SPACEU     no      Match any whitespace char using Unicode semantics
\& SPACEA     no      Match [ \et\en\ef\er]
\& NSPACE     no      Match any non\-whitespace character using native charset
\&                    semantics for non\-utf8
\& NSPACEL    no      Match any non\-whitespace char in locale
\& NSPACEU    no      Match any non\-whitespace char using Unicode semantics
\& NSPACEA    no      Match [^ \et\en\ef\er]
\& DIGIT      no      Match any numeric character using native charset semantics
\&                    for non\-utf8
\& DIGITL     no      Match any numeric character in locale
\& DIGITA     no      Match [0\-9]
\& NDIGIT     no      Match any non\-numeric character using native charset
\& i                  semantics for non\-utf8
\& NDIGITL    no      Match any non\-numeric character in locale
\& NDIGITA    no      Match [^0\-9]
\& CLUMP      no      Match any extended grapheme cluster sequence
\&
\& # Alternation
\&
\& # BRANCH        The set of branches constituting a single choice are hooked
\& #               together with their "next" pointers, since precedence prevents
\& #               anything being concatenated to any individual branch.  The
\& #               "next" pointer of the last BRANCH in a choice points to the
\& #               thing following the whole choice.  This is also where the
\& #               final "next" pointer of each individual branch points; each
\& #               branch starts with the operand node of a BRANCH node.
\& #
\& BRANCH node        Match this alternative, or the next...
\&
\& # Back pointer
\&
\& # BACK          Normal "next" pointers all implicitly point forward; BACK
\& #               exists to make loop structures possible.
\& # not used
\& BACK       no      Match "", "next" ptr points backward.
\&
\& # Literals
\&
\& EXACT      str     Match this string (preceded by length).
\& EXACTF     str     Match this string, folded, native charset semantics for
\&                    non\-utf8 (prec. by length).
\& EXACTFL    str     Match this string, folded in locale (w/len).
\& EXACTFU    str     Match this string, folded, Unicode semantics for non\-utf8
\&                    (prec. by length).
\& EXACTFA    str     Match this string, folded, Unicode semantics for non\-utf8,
\&                    but no ASCII\-range character matches outside ASCII (prec.
\&                    by length),.
\&
\& # Do nothing types
\&
\& NOTHING    no        Match empty string.
\& # A variant of above which delimits a group, thus stops optimizations
\& TAIL       no        Match empty string. Can jump here from outside.
\&
\& # Loops
\&
\& # STAR,PLUS    \*(Aq?\*(Aq, and complex \*(Aq*\*(Aq and \*(Aq+\*(Aq, are implemented as circular
\& #               BRANCH structures using BACK.  Simple cases (one character
\& #               per match) are implemented with STAR and PLUS for speed
\& #               and to minimize recursive plunges.
\& #
\& STAR       node    Match this (simple) thing 0 or more times.
\& PLUS       node    Match this (simple) thing 1 or more times.
\&
\& CURLY      sv 2    Match this simple thing {n,m} times.
\& CURLYN     no 2    Capture next\-after\-this simple thing
\& CURLYM     no 2    Capture this medium\-complex thing {n,m} times.
\& CURLYX     sv 2    Match this complex thing {n,m} times.
\&
\& # This terminator creates a loop structure for CURLYX
\& WHILEM     no      Do curly processing and see if rest matches.
\&
\& # Buffer related
\&
\& # OPEN,CLOSE,GROUPP     ...are numbered at compile time.
\& OPEN       num 1   Mark this point in input as start of #n.
\& CLOSE      num 1   Analogous to OPEN.
\&
\& REF        num 1   Match some already matched string
\& REFF       num 1   Match already matched string, folded using native charset
\&                    semantics for non\-utf8
\& REFFL      num 1   Match already matched string, folded in loc.
\& REFFU      num 1   Match already matched string, folded using unicode
\&                    semantics for non\-utf8
\& REFFA      num 1   Match already matched string, folded using unicode
\&                    semantics for non\-utf8, no mixing ASCII, non\-ASCII
\&
\& # Named references.  Code in regcomp.c assumes that these all are after the
\& # numbered references
\& NREF       no\-sv 1 Match some already matched string
\& NREFF      no\-sv 1 Match already matched string, folded using native charset
\&                    semantics for non\-utf8
\& NREFFL     no\-sv 1 Match already matched string, folded in loc.
\& NREFFU     num   1 Match already matched string, folded using unicode
\&                    semantics for non\-utf8
\& NREFFA     num   1 Match already matched string, folded using unicode
\&                    semantics for non\-utf8, no mixing ASCII, non\-ASCII
\&
\& IFMATCH    off 1 2 Succeeds if the following matches.
\& UNLESSM    off 1 2 Fails if the following matches.
\& SUSPEND    off 1 1 "Independent" sub\-RE.
\& IFTHEN     off 1 1 Switch, should be preceded by switcher.
\& GROUPP     num 1   Whether the group matched.
\&
\& # Support for long RE
\&
\& LONGJMP    off 1 1 Jump far away.
\& BRANCHJ    off 1 1 BRANCH with long offset.
\&
\& # The heavy worker
\&
\& EVAL       evl 1   Execute some Perl code.
\&
\& # Modifiers
\&
\& MINMOD     no      Next operator is not greedy.
\& LOGICAL    no      Next opcode should set the flag only.
\&
\& # This is not used yet
\& RENUM      off 1 1 Group with independently numbered parens.
\&
\& # Trie Related
\&
\& # Behave the same as A|LIST|OF|WORDS would. The \*(Aq..C\*(Aq variants have
\& # inline charclass data (ascii only), the \*(AqC\*(Aq store it in the structure.
\& # NOTE: the relative order of the TRIE\-like regops  is significant
\&
\& TRIE       trie 1    Match many EXACT(F[ALU]?)? at once. flags==type
\& TRIEC      charclass Same as TRIE, but with embedded charclass data
\&
\& # For start classes, contains an added fail table.
\& AHOCORASICK trie 1   Aho Corasick stclass. flags==type
\& AHOCORASICKC charclass Same as AHOCORASICK, but with embedded charclass data
\&
\& # Regex Subroutines
\& GOSUB      num/ofs 2L recurse to paren arg1 at (signed) ofs arg2
\& GOSTART    no         recurse to start of pattern
\&
\& # Special conditionals
\& NGROUPP    no\-sv 1   Whether the group matched.
\& INSUBP     num 1     Whether we are in a specific recurse.
\& DEFINEP    none 1    Never execute directly.
\&
\& # Backtracking Verbs
\& ENDLIKE    none      Used only for the type field of verbs
\& OPFAIL     none      Same as (?!)
\& ACCEPT     parno 1   Accepts the current matched string.
\&
\&
\& # Verbs With Arguments
\& VERB       no\-sv 1   Used only for the type field of verbs
\& PRUNE      no\-sv 1   Pattern fails at this startpoint if no\-backtracking through this
\& MARKPOINT  no\-sv 1   Push the current location for rollback by cut.
\& SKIP       no\-sv 1   On failure skip forward (to the mark) before retrying
\& COMMIT     no\-sv 1   Pattern fails outright if backtracking through this
\& CUTGROUP   no\-sv 1   On failure go to the next alternation in the group
\&
\& # Control what to keep in $&.
\& KEEPS      no        $& begins here.
\&
\& # New charclass like patterns
\& LNBREAK    none      generic newline pattern
\& VERTWS     none      vertical whitespace         (Perl 6)
\& NVERTWS    none      not vertical whitespace     (Perl 6)
\& HORIZWS    none      horizontal whitespace       (Perl 6)
\& NHORIZWS   none      not horizontal whitespace   (Perl 6)
\&
\& FOLDCHAR   codepoint 1 codepoint with tricky case folding properties.
\&
\& # SPECIAL  REGOPS
\&
\& # This is not really a node, but an optimized away piece of a "long" node.
\& # To simplify debugging output, we mark it as if it were a node
\& OPTIMIZED  off       Placeholder for dump.
\&
\& # Special opcode with the property that no opcode in a compiled program
\& # will ever be of this type. Thus it can be used as a flag value that
\& # no other opcode has been seen. END is used similarly, in that an END
\& # node cant be optimized. So END implies "unoptimizable" and PSEUDO mean
\& # "not seen anything to optimize yet".
\& PSEUDO     off       Pseudo opcode for internal use.
.Ve
.PP
Following the optimizer information is a dump of the offset/length
table, here split across several lines:
.PP
.Vb 5
\&  Offsets: [45]
\&        1[4] 0[0] 0[0] 0[0] 0[0] 0[0] 0[0] 0[0] 0[0] 0[0] 0[0] 5[1]
\&        0[0] 12[1] 0[0] 6[1] 0[0] 7[1] 0[0] 9[1] 8[1] 0[0] 10[1] 0[0]
\&        11[1] 0[0] 12[0] 12[0] 13[1] 0[0] 14[4] 0[0] 0[0] 0[0] 0[0]
\&        0[0] 0[0] 0[0] 0[0] 0[0] 0[0] 18[1] 0[0] 19[1] 20[0]
.Ve
.PP
The first line here indicates that the offset/length table contains 45
entries.  Each entry is a pair of integers, denoted by \f(CW\*(C`offset[length]\*(C'\fR.
Entries are numbered starting with 1, so entry #1 here is \f(CW\*(C`1[4]\*(C'\fR and
entry #12 is \f(CW\*(C`5[1]\*(C'\fR.  \f(CW\*(C`1[4]\*(C'\fR indicates that the node labeled \f(CW\*(C`1:\*(C'\fR
(the \f(CW\*(C`1: ANYOF[bc]\*(C'\fR) begins at character position 1 in the
pre-compiled form of the regex, and has a length of 4 characters.
\&\f(CW\*(C`5[1]\*(C'\fR in position 12 
indicates that the node labeled \f(CW\*(C`12:\*(C'\fR
(the \f(CW\*(C`12: EXACT <d>\*(C'\fR) begins at character position 5 in the
pre-compiled form of the regex, and has a length of 1 character.
\&\f(CW\*(C`12[1]\*(C'\fR in position 14 
indicates that the node labeled \f(CW\*(C`14:\*(C'\fR
(the \f(CW\*(C`14: CURLYX[0] {1,32767}\*(C'\fR) begins at character position 12 in the
pre-compiled form of the regex, and has a length of 1 character\-\-\-that
is, it corresponds to the \f(CW\*(C`+\*(C'\fR symbol in the precompiled regex.
.PP
\&\f(CW\*(C`0[0]\*(C'\fR items indicate that there is no corresponding node.
.SS "Run-time Output"
.IX Subsection "Run-time Output"
First of all, when doing a match, one may get no run-time output even
if debugging is enabled.  This means that the regex engine was never
entered and that all of the job was therefore done by the optimizer.
.PP
If the regex engine was entered, the output may look like this:
.PP
.Vb 10
\&  Matching \*(Aq[bc]d(ef*g)+h[ij]k$\*(Aq against \*(Aqabcdefg_\|_gh_\|_\*(Aq
\&    Setting an EVAL scope, savestack=3
\&     2 <ab> <cdefg_\|_gh_>    |  1: ANYOF
\&     3 <abc> <defg_\|_gh_>    | 11: EXACT <d>
\&     4 <abcd> <efg_\|_gh_>    | 13: CURLYX {1,32767}
\&     4 <abcd> <efg_\|_gh_>    | 26:   WHILEM
\&                                0 out of 1..32767  cc=effff31c
\&     4 <abcd> <efg_\|_gh_>    | 15:     OPEN1
\&     4 <abcd> <efg_\|_gh_>    | 17:     EXACT <e>
\&     5 <abcde> <fg_\|_gh_>    | 19:     STAR
\&                             EXACT <f> can match 1 times out of 32767...
\&    Setting an EVAL scope, savestack=3
\&     6 <bcdef> <g_\|_gh_\|_>    | 22:       EXACT <g>
\&     7 <bcdefg> <_\|_gh_\|_>    | 24:       CLOSE1
\&     7 <bcdefg> <_\|_gh_\|_>    | 26:       WHILEM
\&                                    1 out of 1..32767  cc=effff31c
\&    Setting an EVAL scope, savestack=12
\&     7 <bcdefg> <_\|_gh_\|_>    | 15:         OPEN1
\&     7 <bcdefg> <_\|_gh_\|_>    | 17:         EXACT <e>
\&       restoring \e1 to 4(4)..7
\&                                    failed, try continuation...
\&     7 <bcdefg> <_\|_gh_\|_>    | 27:         NOTHING
\&     7 <bcdefg> <_\|_gh_\|_>    | 28:         EXACT <h>
\&                                    failed...
\&                                failed...
.Ve
.PP
The most significant information in the output is about the particular \fInode\fR
of the compiled regex that is currently being tested against the target string.
The format of these lines is
.PP
\&\f(CW\*(C`    \*(C'\fR\fISTRING-OFFSET\fR <\fIPRE-STRING\fR> <\fIPOST-STRING\fR>   |\fI\s-1ID\s0\fR:  \fI\s-1TYPE\s0\fR
.PP
The \fI\s-1TYPE\s0\fR info is indented with respect to the backtracking level.
Other incidental information appears interspersed within.
.SH "Debugging Perl Memory Usage"
.IX Header "Debugging Perl Memory Usage"
Perl is a profligate wastrel when it comes to memory use.  There
is a saying that to estimate memory usage of Perl, assume a reasonable
algorithm for memory allocation, multiply that estimate by 10, and
while you still may miss the mark, at least you won't be quite so
astonished.  This is not absolutely true, but may provide a good
grasp of what happens.
.PP
Assume that an integer cannot take less than 20 bytes of memory, a
float cannot take less than 24 bytes, a string cannot take less
than 32 bytes (all these examples assume 32\-bit architectures, the
result are quite a bit worse on 64\-bit architectures).  If a variable
is accessed in two of three different ways (which require an integer,
a float, or a string), the memory footprint may increase yet another
20 bytes.  A sloppy \fImalloc\fR\|(3) implementation can inflate these
numbers dramatically.
.PP
On the opposite end of the scale, a declaration like
.PP
.Vb 1
\&  sub foo;
.Ve
.PP
may take up to 500 bytes of memory, depending on which release of Perl
you're running.
.PP
Anecdotal estimates of source-to-compiled code bloat suggest an
eightfold increase.  This means that the compiled form of reasonable
(normally commented, properly indented etc.) code will take
about eight times more space in memory than the code took
on disk.
.PP
The \fB\-DL\fR command-line switch is obsolete since circa Perl 5.6.0
(it was available only if Perl was built with \f(CW\*(C`\-DDEBUGGING\*(C'\fR).
The switch was used to track Perl's memory allocations and possible
memory leaks.  These days the use of malloc debugging tools like
\&\fIPurify\fR or \fIvalgrind\fR is suggested instead.  See also
\&\*(L"\s-1PERL_MEM_LOG\s0\*(R" in perlhacktips.
.PP
One way to find out how much memory is being used by Perl data
structures is to install the Devel::Size module from \s-1CPAN:\s0 it gives
you the minimum number of bytes required to store a particular data
structure.  Please be mindful of the difference between the \fIsize()\fR
and \fItotal_size()\fR.
.PP
If Perl has been compiled using Perl's malloc you can analyze Perl
memory usage by setting \f(CW$ENV\fR{\s-1PERL_DEBUG_MSTATS\s0}.
.ie n .SS "Using $ENV{PERL_DEBUG_MSTATS}"
.el .SS "Using \f(CW$ENV{PERL_DEBUG_MSTATS}\fP"
.IX Subsection "Using $ENV{PERL_DEBUG_MSTATS}"
If your perl is using Perl's \fImalloc()\fR and was compiled with the
necessary switches (this is the default), then it will print memory
usage statistics after compiling your code when \f(CW\*(C`$ENV{PERL_DEBUG_MSTATS}
> 1\*(C'\fR, and before termination of the program when \f(CW\*(C`$ENV{PERL_DEBUG_MSTATS} >= 1\*(C'\fR.  The report format is similar to
the following example:
.PP
.Vb 10
\&  $ PERL_DEBUG_MSTATS=2 perl \-e "require Carp"
\&  Memory allocation statistics after compilation: (buckets 4(4)..8188(8192)
\&     14216 free:   130   117    28     7     9   0   2     2   1 0 0
\&                437    61    36     0     5
\&     60924 used:   125   137   161    55     7   8   6    16   2 0 1
\&                 74   109   304    84    20
\&  Total sbrk(): 77824/21:119. Odd ends: pad+heads+chain+tail: 0+636+0+2048.
\&  Memory allocation statistics after execution:   (buckets 4(4)..8188(8192)
\&     30888 free:   245    78    85    13     6   2   1     3   2 0 1
\&                315   162    39    42    11
\&    175816 used:   265   176  1112   111    26  22  11    27   2 1 1
\&                196   178  1066   798    39
\&  Total sbrk(): 215040/47:145. Odd ends: pad+heads+chain+tail: 0+2192+0+6144.
.Ve
.PP
It is possible to ask for such a statistic at arbitrary points in
your execution using the \fImstat()\fR function out of the standard
Devel::Peek module.
.PP
Here is some explanation of that format:
.ie n .IP """buckets SMALLEST(APPROX)..GREATEST(APPROX)""" 4
.el .IP "\f(CWbuckets SMALLEST(APPROX)..GREATEST(APPROX)\fR" 4
.IX Item "buckets SMALLEST(APPROX)..GREATEST(APPROX)"
Perl's \fImalloc()\fR uses bucketed allocations.  Every request is rounded
up to the closest bucket size available, and a bucket is taken from
the pool of buckets of that size.
.Sp
The line above describes the limits of buckets currently in use.
Each bucket has two sizes: memory footprint and the maximal size
of user data that can fit into this bucket.  Suppose in the above
example that the smallest bucket were size 4.  The biggest bucket
would have usable size 8188, and the memory footprint would be 8192.
.Sp
In a Perl built for debugging, some buckets may have negative usable
size.  This means that these buckets cannot (and will not) be used.
For larger buckets, the memory footprint may be one page greater
than a power of 2.  If so, the corresponding power of two is
printed in the \f(CW\*(C`APPROX\*(C'\fR field above.
.IP "Free/Used" 4
.IX Item "Free/Used"
The 1 or 2 rows of numbers following that correspond to the number
of buckets of each size between \f(CW\*(C`SMALLEST\*(C'\fR and \f(CW\*(C`GREATEST\*(C'\fR.  In
the first row, the sizes (memory footprints) of buckets are powers
of two\*(--or possibly one page greater.  In the second row, if present,
the memory footprints of the buckets are between the memory footprints
of two buckets \*(L"above\*(R".
.Sp
For example, suppose under the previous example, the memory footprints
were
.Sp
.Vb 2
\&     free:    8     16    32    64    128  256 512 1024 2048 4096 8192
\&           4     12    24    48    80
.Ve
.Sp
With a non\-\f(CW\*(C`DEBUGGING\*(C'\fR perl, the buckets starting from \f(CW128\fR have
a 4\-byte overhead, and thus an 8192\-long bucket may take up to
8188\-byte allocations.
.ie n .IP """Total sbrk(): SBRKed/SBRKs:CONTINUOUS""" 4
.el .IP "\f(CWTotal sbrk(): SBRKed/SBRKs:CONTINUOUS\fR" 4
.IX Item "Total sbrk(): SBRKed/SBRKs:CONTINUOUS"
The first two fields give the total amount of memory perl \fIsbrk\fR\|(2)ed
(ess-broken? :\-) and number of \fIsbrk\fR\|(2)s used.  The third number is
what perl thinks about continuity of returned chunks.  So long as
this number is positive, \fImalloc()\fR will assume that it is probable
that \fIsbrk\fR\|(2) will provide continuous memory.
.Sp
Memory allocated by external libraries is not counted.
.ie n .IP """pad: 0""" 4
.el .IP "\f(CWpad: 0\fR" 4
.IX Item "pad: 0"
The amount of \fIsbrk\fR\|(2)ed memory needed to keep buckets aligned.
.ie n .IP """heads: 2192""" 4
.el .IP "\f(CWheads: 2192\fR" 4
.IX Item "heads: 2192"
Although memory overhead of bigger buckets is kept inside the bucket, for
smaller buckets, it is kept in separate areas.  This field gives the
total size of these areas.
.ie n .IP """chain: 0""" 4
.el .IP "\f(CWchain: 0\fR" 4
.IX Item "chain: 0"
\&\fImalloc()\fR may want to subdivide a bigger bucket into smaller buckets.
If only a part of the deceased bucket is left unsubdivided, the rest
is kept as an element of a linked list.  This field gives the total
size of these chunks.
.ie n .IP """tail: 6144""" 4
.el .IP "\f(CWtail: 6144\fR" 4
.IX Item "tail: 6144"
To minimize the number of \fIsbrk\fR\|(2)s, \fImalloc()\fR asks for more memory.  This
field gives the size of the yet unused part, which is \fIsbrk\fR\|(2)ed, but
never touched.
.SH "SEE ALSO"
.IX Header "SEE ALSO"
perldebug,
perlguts,
perlrun
re,
and
Devel::DProf.
